Moovar Kovil, Kodumbalur: Historical and Archaeological Analysis

Historical Background and Significance

Moovar kovil was first brought to scholarly attention by James Fergusson in the 19th century in his works on Indian architecture.

However, detailed documentation and study were carried out by Alexander Rea, a British archaeologist and Superintendent of the Southern Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), around 1902.

Rea’s work helped classify and date the temple to the early Chola period, around 9th century CE, built by Bhuti Vikramakesari, a feudatory of the Cholas. The name “Moovar Koil” (meaning “Three Temples”) refers to the original three shrines, of which two survive today.

Moovar Kovil (“Three Temples”) is a 9th–10th century Shiva temple complex located in Kodumbalur village of Tamil Nadu’s Pudukottai District . Kodumbalur was an important site in early medieval South India – it lay on the trade route between the Chola capital Uraiyur and the Pandya capital Madurai, and is even mentioned in the Tamil epic Silappadikaram . The region was ruled by the Irukkuvel (Irunkovel) clan, local chieftains who became powerful allies of the Imperial Cholas. In fact, Kodumbalur was the site of a fierce 8th-century battle between the Pandyas and Pallavas , underlining its strategic importance on the boundary of major kingdoms. By the Chola period, Kodumbalur had developed into a significant religious and cultural center, with later Tamil texts like Thirupugazh (by Arunagirinathar) praising the site.

The Moovar Kovil complex holds great historical significance as one of the earliest surviving examples of Chola temple architecture. Art historians count it among the four extant early Chola stone temples (along with the Koranganatha Temple at Srinivasanallur, Nageswaran Temple at Kumbakonam, and Brahmapureeswarar Temple at Tirupullamangai) that bridge the transition from prior Pallava styles to the mature Chola style . The Cholas used stone to replace earlier brick temples, and Moovar Kovil exemplifies this shift with its durable construction and refined design . Its relatively small scale and certain design elements (like a sunken ardha-mandapa, or front porch) echo Pallava architectural traditions, yet it introduces innovations that would inspire later grand Chola temples . Some scholars even suggest Moovar Kovil’s design influenced Rajaraja I when conceiving the Brihadeeswarar “Big Temple” at Thanjavur. Thus, the complex is a “living example” of early medieval Chola architecture and offers insight into the development of South Indian temple design.

Patronage and Dynasty

Moovar Kovil was built by Bhooti (Bhuti) Vikrama Kesari, a chieftain of the Irukkuvel (Irunkovel) clan who were feudatories of the Cholas. Bhooti Vikrama Kesari ruled Kodumbalur around the late 9th century CE and is famed for commissioning this triple-shrine complex as a testament to his devotion and stature. Inscriptions at the site (including a Sanskrit inscription on the central shrine’s south wall) credit him with constructing the three sanctuaries – the central shrine was named for himself and the two flanking shrines were named after his two queens, Karrali and Varaguna. This unique plan of “three temples” earned the site its name Moovar Kovil. While later legends offered other interpretations (e.g. that the three Tamil Saiva saints or even the three crowned kings of Tamilakam built one shrine each), the epigraphic evidence firmly links the complex to Bhooti Vikrama Kesari and his family.

Bhooti Vikrama Kesari’s lineage and alliances underscore the temple’s historical context. He was the son of a Chola princess named Anupama (daughter of King Parantaka I) and an Irukkuvel chief Samarabirama. This made him a blood relative of the Cholas, reflecting the matrimonial alliances between the Chola imperial family and their loyal vassals. As a feudatory, Bhooti supported the Chola throne in regional conflicts – inscriptions suggest he defeated both Pallava and Pandya forces in battle. He is identified with “Tennavan Ilangovel,” an Irukkuvel lord contemporary with Chola King Aditya I (ruled c.871–907 CE). His daughter Nangai was even married into the Chola royal line (to prince Arikulakesari, son of Parantaka I), further cementing the bond between the Irukkuvels and Cholas. These political and familial connections recorded at Moovar Kovil’s site illustrate the broader power dynamics of 8th–10th century south India, where local kings like the Irukkuvels played key roles in empire-building. The temple’s inscriptions, detailing nine generations of Irukkuvel chiefs and alliances, are a valuable primary source on the period’s history.

Architectural Features and Style

Architecturally, Moovar Kovil is a masterpiece of early Chola Dravidian architecture. The complex originally consisted of three adjacent stone shrines arranged north–south, all dedicated to Lord Shiva and facing west. Today, only the central and southern shrines stand intact, while the northern shrine has disappeared except for its stone plinth (basement). Notably, the surviving northern plinth is carved in the shape of a full-bloomed lotus (padma-pushkala adhisthana), a decorative foundation detail. Each shrine was designed as a complete temple in itself – featuring a square garbhagriha (sanctum) housing a Shiva lingam, flanked by dvarapalaka (guardian) sculptures at the entrance, and preceded by a small ardha-mandapa (anteroom). Evidence suggests all three sanctums shared a common maha-mandapa (main hall) in front, essentially creating one integrated temple complex where the shrines stood side by side on a single platform. A separate little Nandi shrine (housing Shiva’s bull mount) sits in front of what would have been the combined mandapa, aligned with the central sanctum.

The two surviving temples are nearly identical in form and modest in scale, each base measuring roughly 6.4 square meters. They are built in stone in the double-tiered (dvi-tala) vimana style – meaning each sanctum tower has two storeys or levels above the sanctum . The vimanas are pyramidal with each tier adorned by miniature shrines, and topped by a rounded cupola. The walls of the shrines are richly carved with pilasters and koshta niches containing high-relief sculptures (described in the next section). An interesting early Chola feature at Moovar Kovil is the use of circular pilasters (rounded engaged columns) on the vimana, known as vritta-sphutita in architectural texts. This motif – essentially a circular shaft on all four faces of a pillar – is rare and seen only in a few other early Chola temples such as the Tillaistanam Neyyadiappar and Narthamalai Vijayalaya Choleswaram temples. Its presence here attests to the temple’s antiquity. Overall, the architecture of Moovar Kovil balances simplicity and ornamentation, reflecting a formative period of Chola style when artisans were refining structural techniques learned from the Pallavas while experimenting with new stylistic flourishes.

Notable Sculptures and Inscriptions

Moovar Kovil is renowned for its exquisite stone sculptures, which rank among the finest of early Chola art. Almost every wall niche and upper tier of the vimana carries a beautifully carved image, most depicting forms of Shiva or related deities. Collectively, these carvings demonstrate the Chola sculptors’ skill in portraying dynamic poses and intricate details in stone. For instance, on the central shrine, the western niche depicts Uma Sahita Murti (Shiva seated with Uma/Parvati), while the eastern side shows a panel of Indra on Airavata (Indra on his elephant) above an image of Alinganamurti (Shiva embracing Parvati) and a lower panel of Ardhanareeswarar (the half-Shiva, half-Parvati form). The northern face features Rishabhantaka Murti (Shiva subduing the bull-demon) and a seated Shiva, among other figures. The southern side of one shrine has a superb pair of Dakshinamurti images (Shiva as the yogi-teacher) – a Yoga Dakshinamurti in one niche and another seated variation in a mid-level niche.

Many carvings depict Shiva in fierce aspects from mythology: for example, Tripurantaka (Shiva as the destroyer of the three demon cities) is shown in a dynamic, “volatile” posture on one shrine’s east face . Directly below that is the much-celebrated Kalarimurti (also known as Kalantaka, Shiva as Victor over Time/Death – the form where he kicks Yama to save his devotee) . This Kalarimurti sculpture is considered the “pride of Pudukottai” for its natural, graceful yet energetic pose capturing Shiva in motion. Other panels include Gajasamharamurti (Shiva slaying the elephant demon) on a south face, Natesa (a form of Nataraja, the Cosmic Dancer), Bhikshatanar (Shiva as the mendicant ascetic), Gangadhara (Shiva catching Ganga in his hair), Andhakasura-vadha (Shiva vanquishing the demon Andhaka), and even a composite Harihara (Sankaranarayanar – half-Shiva, half-Vishnu) form. Notably, a form of Shiva playing the vina (lute) – often called Veenadhara Dakshinamurti – is carved here, and an Ardhanari figure as mentioned earlier. Art historians identify the Ardhanariswara and Veenadhara Shiva sculptures of Kodumbalur as outstanding early Chola works, formative in the evolution of Chola iconography (). In fact, due to their artistic importance, some original sculptures from Moovar Kovil have been relocated for safekeeping in the Government Museums at Chennai and Pudukottai. What remains on-site, however, is still impressive – even the upper tiers feature miniature reliefs, including one instance of a tiny temple-in-temple carving (a mini model of a shrine carved into a niche at the top of a vimana) . These sculptures collectively showcase the Chola mastery of stone carving – the expressive movement, balanced composition, and refined ornamentation would reach full flower in later big Chola temples, but at Kodumbalur one can see them in an early, experimental state.

Beyond iconography, the site’s inscriptions provide invaluable information. Several stone inscriptions in Tamil (with some Sanskrit) are etched on the temple walls, elucidating the temple’s construction and the historical context . One long inscription offers a genealogy of the Irukkuvel chiefs spanning nine generations, culminating in Bhooti Vikrama Kesari . Another portion describes Bhooti Vikrama Kesari’s own life and military achievements, including reference to an enemy “Veera Pandyan” whom he fought. (Scholars note this could allude to a Pandya king in conflict with the Cholas, possibly the same who was involved in battles with Chola prince Aditya Karikala in the late 10th century. Crucially, the chief’s dedicatory inscription explicitly states that he built three temples – “one for himself and the other two for his wives Nangai Varaguna Perumanar and Karrali” – confirming the purpose of the triple-shrine layout. The names of these queens are immortalized in stone, and the shrines themselves were likely named after them . There is also mention of a temple at “Tiruppurdeswaram” with land grants, indicating Bhooti’s patronage extended to other temples as well . Interestingly, one inscription uses a rare epithet for Kodumbalur – Konnadu-kodi Nagaram (meaning “apex city of Konadu”) – as found later in Periyapuranam, attesting to the prestige of Kodumbalur in that era . Collectively, these inscriptions not only record the temple’s founding but also serve as historical documents illuminating Chola-Irukkuvel relations and the sociopolitical landscape of south India between the 8th and 10th centuries.

Archaeological Excavations and Current Preservation

Though over a thousand years old, Moovar Kovil has survived in substantial form and is now a protected monument. By the modern era, parts of the complex had fallen to ruin – the northern shrine was completely lost except for its base, and even the standing shrines showed signs of weathering and possible deliberate damage to certain carvings . The site came under the care of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), which has undertaken efforts to conserve and restore it . In the mid-20th century, initial clearing and documentation were done; scattered architectural fragments and sculptures were gathered. Notably, as mentioned, several sculptural pieces were shifted to museums to prevent theft or further decay. The ASI has periodically maintained the structure, and recent plans were announced to preserve and possibly reinstall fallen stones and broken architectural components from the site . For example, media reports indicate the ASI’s intent to catalog and preserve damaged temple boulders strewn around Moovar Kovil, to aid future restoration or study.

In addition to preserving the standing monuments, archaeological interest in Kodumbalur’s wider area has grown. In 2023–24, ASI’s Trichy Circle identified Kodumbalur as one of 32 sites for systematic excavation, aiming to uncover the settlement that existed around the temple . In early 2025, an excavation project was launched at ancient habitation mounds near Kodumbalur . The goal is to establish the cultural sequence of Kodumbalur through archaeological evidence – excavators hope to find remains of ancient dwellings, pottery, and other material culture that could date back to the Sangam period or early historic era . Given that Kodumbalur is linked in literature to the Sangam age and known to have been an active trade center by the 9th century (with guilds like Manigramam operating here, such excavations could reveal continuity of habitation and the town’s evolution. Any findings (e.g. pottery, coins, industrial remnants) will add context to the temple, showing the community that built and used it. As of now, the temple itself has not required extensive digging since it was a standing structure, but these surrounding excavations underscore Kodumbalur’s archaeological importance beyond the monument.

Presently, Moovar Kovil is in a fair state of preservation. The central and southern shrines remain mostly intact, including their superstructures, and still enshrine Shiva lingas in situ . Visitors can clearly see the layout and most of the carvings, though some features (like a portion of the vimana details or the linking mandapa) are partially damaged or missing. The northern shrine’s outline can be traced via its foundation, giving a sense of the original triad arrangement . The ASI has likely stabilized the masonry to prevent further collapse, and the grounds are maintained (kept free of encroaching vegetation, etc.). There is an informational signboard by the ASI describing the monument’s history and significance . While the site is structurally secure, it does face the usual challenges of open-air ruins – weathering of stone and relatively low tourist footfall. Locals and historians have occasionally raised concerns that this valuable heritage site does not get the attention it deserves and remains somewhat “neglected” in terms of visitor infrastructure. However, ongoing conservation efforts and archaeological research indicate a continued commitment to safeguarding Moovar Kovil’s legacy.

Location, Accessibility, and Visitor Information

Location: Moovar Kovil is situated in Kodumbalur village, which lies in Viralimalai taluk of Pudukottai District, Tamil Nadu. It is about 36–38 km from Pudukkottai town and roughly 40–44 km from Tiruchirappalli (Trichy) . The site is just ~3 km east off of National Highway 38 (the Trichy–Madurai highway) near the town of Viralimalai. The nearest larger hub is the town of Manapparai, about 14–15 km away, which has a bus stand and a minor railway station. The temple is also around 10 km from Viralimalai (a small town known for a Murugan temple). For long-distance travelers, the closest major airport is Tiruchirappalli International Airport (approx. 42 km) and Madurai is about 100 km to the south.

Accessibility: The site is moderately easy to reach by road. Visitors coming from Trichy or Madurai can travel on NH-38 and turn off near Viralimalai/Kodumbalur. Regular buses and share-autos connect Kodumbalur with nearby towns – there are frequent local buses from Manapparai and Viralimalai that pass through or stop at Kodumbalur . If driving, one can navigate via Google Maps to “Kodumbalur Moovar Koil” . Parking is usually informal by the roadside near the monument. The area is rural and quiet, so it’s advisable to arrange return transport in advance if coming by hired vehicle.

Visitor Information: Moovar Kovil is open to visitors from 9:00 AM to 5:30 PM daily . It is a protected monument under ASI, no longer used for active worship, which means there are no daily poojas or priests on site.

An entry ticket is required – at a nominal fee of ₹5 for Indian/SAARC citizens (and free for children under 15), or $2 (approximately ₹100) for other foreign tourists . The ticket can be purchased at the small ASI counter or from the site attendant. There are usually one or two ASI staff or guards present to oversee the site, but guided tours are not common, so hiring a guide from Trichy or reading up beforehand is recommended to appreciate the details. Basic facilities are minimal: there may be a small shelter or rest spot, but no on-site museum or cafeteria. It’s wise to carry water and snacks, and note that there are no restrooms immediately at the temple (the nearest facilities would be in Viralimalai or at a gas station on the highway).

Despite its somewhat remote location, Moovar Kovil is a rewarding visit for history and architecture enthusiasts. The serene atmosphere and village setting also add to its charm. Visitors can freely walk around the shrines, observe the carvings up close, and even see a historic stepped well near the temple used in old times. Photography is allowed (and especially rewarding given the intricate sculpture work). In the vicinity, one can also visit the Muchukundeswarar Temple (a small early Chola-era Shiva temple a short distance east of Moovar Kovil), and the site of Aivar Kovil (five temples, now mostly vanished). For those interested in Tamil Saiva history, Kodumbalur is traditionally considered the birthplace of Idankazhi Nayanar, one of the 63 Nayanmar saints, and a modern shrine nearby honors him. In sum, Moovar Kovil stands today not only as an archaeological treasure of Tamil Nadu – showcasing early Chola dynasty art and architecture – but also as a window into the region’s rich historical tapestry. Its preservation by ASI ensures that this gem will continue to educate and inspire future generations about the legacy of the Cholas and their allies.

Enjoy your visit to this splendid heritage monument, where history literally stands carved in stone.

Sources:

1. Historical and architectural details have been referenced from archaeological surveys and research on Chola temples, government and tourism publications , as well as inscriptions translated by epigraphists.
2. Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology and ASI reports, academic studies on Chola art
3. Articles in The Hindu highlighting recent excavations.